---
title: "References"
description: "Updated August 13, 2015: This new edition includes corrected estimates for Iceland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Taiwan, and some related aggregated data. Alwang, Jeffrey, Paul B. Siegel and Steen L. Jorgensen. 2001. “Vulnerability: A View from Different Disciplines.” Washington, D.C.: World Bank, June. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2001/06/1637776/vulnerability-view-different-disciplines Baicker, Katherine and Amitabh Chandra. 2005. “The Labor Market Effects of Rising […]"
date: "2015-07-08"
authors:
  - name: "Rakesh Kochhar"
    job_title: "Former Senior Researcher"
    link: "https://www.pewresearch.org/staff/rakesh-kochhar/"
url: "https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2015/07/08/references-2/"
categories:
  - "Income & Wages"
  - "Middle Class"
  - "Poverty"
---

# References

*Updated August 13, 2015: This new edition includes corrected estimates for Iceland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Taiwan, and some related aggregated data.*

Alwang, Jeffrey, Paul B. Siegel and Steen L. Jorgensen. 2001. “Vulnerability: A View from Different Disciplines.” Washington, D.C.: World Bank, June. [http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2001/06/1637776/vulnerability-view-different-disciplines](http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2001/06/1637776/vulnerability-view-different-disciplines)

Baicker, Katherine and Amitabh Chandra. 2005. “The Labor Market Effects of Rising Health Insurance Premiums.” Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, February. [http://www.nber.org/papers/w11160](http://www.nber.org/papers/w11160)

Basu, Sudip Ranjan. 2009. “Comparing China and India: Is the Dividend of Economic Reforms Polarized?” The European Journal of Comparative Economics. [http://eaces.liuc.it/18242979200901/182429792009060105.pdf](http://eaces.liuc.it/18242979200901/182429792009060105.pdf)

Birdsall, Nancy. 2010. “The (Indispensable) Middle Class in Developing Countries; or, the Rich and the Rest, not the Poor and the Rest.” Washington, D.C.: Center for Global Development, March. [http://www.cgdev.org/publication/indispensable-middle-class-developing-countries-or-rich-and-rest-not-poor-and-rest](http://www.cgdev.org/publication/indispensable-middle-class-developing-countries-or-rich-and-rest-not-poor-and-rest)

Birdsall, Nancy. 2012. “Is India’s Middle Class Big Enough For …?” Washington, D.C.: Center for Global Development, November. [http://www.cgdev.org/blog/india%E2%80%99s-middle-class-big-enough](http://www.cgdev.org/blog/india%E2%80%99s-middle-class-big-enough)

Birdsall, Nancy. 2015. “Does the Rise of the Middle Class Lock in Good Government in the Developing World?” Washington, D.C.: Center for Global Development, April. [http://www.cgdev.org/publication/does-rise-middle-class-lock-good-government-developing-world](http://www.cgdev.org/publication/does-rise-middle-class-lock-good-government-developing-world)

Birdsall, Nancy, Nora Lustig and Christian J. Meyer. 2013. “The Strugglers: The New Poor in Latin America?” Washington, D.C.: Center for Global Development, August. [http://www.cgdev.org/publication/strugglers-new-poor-latin-america-working-paper-337](http://www.cgdev.org/publication/strugglers-new-poor-latin-america-working-paper-337)

Bosworth, Barry, and Susan M. Collins. 2007. “Accounting for Growth: Comparing China and India.” Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, February. [http://www.nber.org/papers/w12943](http://www.nber.org/papers/w12943)

Bourguignon, Francois, and Christian Morrisson. 2002. “Inequality Among World Citizens: 1820-1992.” American Economic Review, September. [https://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/00028280260344443](https://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/00028280260344443)

Chandy, Laurence, and Homi Kharas. 2014. “What Do New Price Data Mean for the Goal of Ending Extreme Poverty?” Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, Up Front, May. [http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2014/05/05-data-extreme-poverty-chandy-kharas](http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2014/05/05-data-extreme-poverty-chandy-kharas)

Chen, Shaohua, and Martin Ravallion. 2004. “How Have the World’s Poorest Fared Since the Early 1980s?” Washington, D.C.: World Bank, June. [https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/14047/wps3341.pdf?sequence=1](https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/14047/wps3341.pdf?sequence=1)

Chen, Shaohua, and Martin Ravallion. 2010. “The Developing World Is Poorer than We Thought, but No Less Successful in the Fight Against Poverty.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, November. [http://qje.oxfordjournals.org/content/125/4/1577.short](http://qje.oxfordjournals.org/content/125/4/1577.short)

Cho, Yoonyoung, and Bienvenue N. Tien. 2014. “Sub-Saharan Africa’s Recent Growth Spurt: An Analysis of the Sources of Growth.” Washington, D.C.: World Bank, May. [http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/05/19460685/sub-saharan-africas-recent-growth-spurt-analysis-sources-growth](http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/05/19460685/sub-saharan-africas-recent-growth-spurt-analysis-sources-growth)

Cingano, Federico. 2014. “Trends in Income Inequality and its Impact on Economic Growth.” Paris, France: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, December. [http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/trends-in-income-inequality-and-its-impact-on-economic-growth_5jxrjncwxv6j-en](http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/trends-in-income-inequality-and-its-impact-on-economic-growth_5jxrjncwxv6j-en)

Congressional Budget Office. 2011. “Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007.” Washington, D.C., October. [http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/10-25-HouseholdIncome.pdf](http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/10-25-HouseholdIncome.pdf)

Court, David, and Laxman Narasimhan. 2010. “Capturing the World’s Emerging Middle Class.” McKinsey Quarterly, July. [http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/consumer_and_retail/capturing_the_worlds_emerging_middle_class](http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/consumer_and_retail/capturing_the_worlds_emerging_middle_class)

Dabla-Norris, Era, Kalpana Kochhar, Nujin Suphaphiphat, Frantisek Ricka and Evridiki Tsounta. 2015. “Causes and Consequences of Income Inequality: A Global Perspective.” Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, June. [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2015/sdn1513.pdf](http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2015/sdn1513.pdf)

Dadush, Uri, and William Shaw. 2011. “Juggernaut: How Emerging Markets Are Reshaping Globalization.” Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. [http://carnegieendowment.org/files/juggernaut_final.pdf](http://carnegieendowment.org/files/juggernaut_final.pdf)

Dang, Hai-Anh H., and Peter F. Lanjouw. 2014. “Welfare Dynamics Measurement: Two Definitions of a Vulnerability Line and their Empirical Application.” Washington, D.C.: World Bank, June. [http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/06/19705818/welfare-dynamics-measurement-two-definitions-vulnerability-line-empirical-application](http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/06/19705818/welfare-dynamics-measurement-two-definitions-vulnerability-line-empirical-application)

Deaton, Angus. 2003. “Measuring Poverty in a Growing World (or Measuring Growth in a Poor World).” Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, July. [http://www.nber.org/papers/w9822](http://www.nber.org/papers/w9822)

Deaton, Angus, and Bettina Aten. 2014. “Trying to Understand the PPPs in ICP2011: Why Are the Results so Different?” Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, June. [http://www.nber.org/papers/w20244](http://www.nber.org/papers/w20244)

Dobbs, Richard, Jaana Remes, James Manyika, Charles Roxburgh, Sven Smit and Fabian Schaer. 2012. “Urban World: Cities and the Rise of the Consuming Class.” McKinsey & Company, June. [http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/urbanization/urban_world_cities_and_the_rise_of_the_consuming_class](http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/urbanization/urban_world_cities_and_the_rise_of_the_consuming_class)

Dykstra, Sarah, Benjamin Dykstra and Justin Sandefur. 2014. “We Just Ran Twenty-Three Million Queries of the World Bank’s Website.” Washington, D.C.: Center for Global Development, April. [http://www.cgdev.org/publication/we-just-ran-twenty-three-million-queries-world-banks-website-working-paper-362](http://www.cgdev.org/publication/we-just-ran-twenty-three-million-queries-world-banks-website-working-paper-362)

Elsby, Michael W. L., Bart Hobijn, and Aysegul Sahin. 2013. “The Decline of the U.S. Labor Share.” Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution. [http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Projects/BPEA/Fall-2013/2013b_elsby_labor_share.pdf?la=en](http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Projects/BPEA/Fall-2013/2013b_elsby_labor_share.pdf?la=en)

Ferreira, Francisco H.G., Julian Messina, Jamele Rigolini, Luis-Felipe Lopez-Calva, Maria Ana Lugo and Renos Vakis. 2012. “Economic Mobility and the Rise of the Latin American Middle Class.” Washington, D.C.: World Bank, November. [http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/978-0-8213-9634-6](http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/978-0-8213-9634-6)

Financial Times. 2014. “World Bank Eyes Biggest Global Poverty Line Increase in Decades.” London, U.K.: May. [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/091808e0-d6da-11e3-b95e-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3UIjx1SGl](http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/091808e0-d6da-11e3-b95e-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3UIjx1SGl)

Fukuyama, Francis. 2011. “Is There a Proper Sequence in Democratic Transitions?” Current History, November. [http://www.currenthistory.com/Article.php?ID=921](http://www.currenthistory.com/Article.php?ID=921)

Government of India Planning Commission. 2014. “Report of the Expert Group to Review the Methodology for Measurement of Poverty.” June. [http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/pov_rep0707.pdf](http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/pov_rep0707.pdf)

Hout, Michael. 2007. “How Class Works in Popular Conception: Most Americans Identify with the Class Their Income, Occupation, and Education Implies for Them.” Berkeley, CA: Survey Research Center, February. [http://ucdata.berkeley.edu/publication_record.php?recid=96](http://ucdata.berkeley.edu/publication_record.php?recid=96)

International Monetary Fund. 2014. “World Economic Outlook: Legacies, Clouds, Uncertainties.” Washington, D.C.: October. [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/02/](http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/02/)

International Monetary Fund. 2015. “Global Prospects and Policy Challenges.” G-20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors Meeting, Istanbul, Turkey, February 9-10. [http://www.imf.org/external/np/g20/pdf/2015/020915.pdf](http://www.imf.org/external/np/g20/pdf/2015/020915.pdf)

Jaumotte, Florence. 2012. “Is Labor Compensation Still Falling in Advanced Economies?” IMF Survey Magazine, May. [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2012/NUM052412A.htm](http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2012/NUM052412A.htm)

Kharas, Homi. 2010. “The Emerging Middle Class in Developing Countries.” Paris, France: OECD Development Centre, January. [http://www.oecd.org/dev/44457738.pdf](http://www.oecd.org/dev/44457738.pdf)

Lakner, Christoph, and Branko Milanovic. 2013. “Global Income Distribution: From the Fall of the Berlin Wall to the Great Recession.” Washington, D.C: World Bank, December. [http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6719](http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6719)

Leke, Acha, Susan Lund, Charles Roxburgh and Arend van Wamelen. 2010. “What’s Driving Africa’s Growth.” McKinsey & Company, June. [http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/economic_studies/whats_driving_africas_growth ](http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/economic_studies/whats_driving_africas_growth%20%20)

Lipset, Seymour Martin. 1959. “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy.” American Political Science Review, March. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1951731?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents](http://www.jstor.org/stable/1951731?seq=1%23page_scan_tab_contents%20).

Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database, [http://www.lisdatacenter.org](http://www.lisdatacenter.org) (multiple countries; October 2014 to April 2015). Luxembourg: LIS.

Milanovic, Branko. 1999. “True World Income Distribution, 1988 and 1993: First Calculations, Based on Household Surveys Alone.” Washington, D.C.: World Bank, November. [http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/1813-9450-2244](http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/1813-9450-2244)

Milanovic, Branko. 2011. The Haves and the Have-Nots. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Milanovic, Branko. 2014. “For Whom the Wall Fell? A Balance-Sheet of Transition to Capitalism.” Global Inequality, November. [http://glineq.blogspot.com/2014/11/for-whom-wall-fell-balance-sheet-of.html](http://glineq.blogspot.com/2014/11/for-whom-wall-fell-balance-sheet-of.html)

Milanovic, Branko, and Shlomo Yitzhaki. 2002. “Decomposing World Income Distribution: Does the World Have a Middle Class?” Review of Income and Wealth, June. [http://www.roiw.org/2002/155.pdf](http://www.roiw.org/2002/155.pdf)

Murtin, Fabrice, and Romain Wacziarg. 2014. “The Democratic Transition.” Journal of Economic Growth, June. [http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty_pages/romain.wacziarg/downloads/transition.pdf](http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty_pages/romain.wacziarg/downloads/transition.pdf)

Orshansky, Mollie. 1965. “Counting the Poor: Another Look at the Poverty Profile.” Social Security Bulletin, January. [http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v28n1/v28n1p3.pdf](http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v28n1/v28n1p3.pdf)

Ostry, Jonathan D., Andrew Berg and Charalambos G. Tsangarides. 2014. “Redistribution, Inequality, and Growth.” Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, February. [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2014/sdn1402.pdf](http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2014/sdn1402.pdf)

Pew Research Center. 2012. “The Lost Decade of the Middle Class.” Washington, D.C.: August. [https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2012/08/22/the-lost-decade-of-the-middle-class/](https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2012/08/22/the-lost-decade-of-the-middle-class/)

Ravallion, Martin, Shaohua Chen and Prem Sangraula. 2009. “Dollar a Day Revisited.” Washington, D.C.: World Bank, June. [http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1093/wber/lhp007](http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1093/wber/lhp007)

Savage, Mike, Fiona Devine, Niall Cunningham, Mark Taylor, Yaojun Li, Johs. Hjellbrekke, Brigitte Le Roux, Sam Friedman and Andrew Miles. 2013. “A New Model of Social Class: Findings from the BBC’s Great British Class Survey Experiment.” Sociology, April.

Sosa, Sebastian, and Evridiki Tsounta. 2013. “A Bumpy Road Ahead.” Finance & Development, September. [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2013/09/sosa.htm](http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2013/09/sosa.htm)

Summers, Lawrence H., and Ed Balls. 2015. “Report of the Commission on Inclusive Prosperity.” Washington, D.C.: Center for American Progress, January. [https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/report/2015/01/15/104266/report-of-the-commission-on-inclusive-prosperity](https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/report/2015/01/15/104266/report-of-the-commission-on-inclusive-prosperity)

U.S. Census Bureau. “Historical Income Tables: Households.” Washington, D.C. [http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/household/](https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-income-households.html)

U.S. Census Bureau. “Poverty Thresholds for 2011 by Size of Family and Number of Related Children Under 18 Years.” [http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/data/threshld/index.html](https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-poverty-thresholds.html)

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Wilson, Dominic, and Raluca Dragusanu. 2008. “The Expanding Middle: The Exploding World Middle Class and Falling Global Inequality.” New York, NY: Goldman Sachs, July. [http://www.ryanallis.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/07/expandingmiddle.pdf](http://www.ryanallis.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/07/expandingmiddle.pdf)

Wignaraja, Ganeshan. 2011. “Economic Reforms, Regionalism, and Exports: Comparing China and India.” Honolulu: East-West Center. [http://www.eastwestcenter.org/publications/economic-reforms-regionalism-and-exports-comparing-china-and-india](http://www.eastwestcenter.org/publications/economic-reforms-regionalism-and-exports-comparing-china-and-india)

World Bank. 2007. “Global Economic Prospects: Managing the Next Wave of Globalization.” Washington, D.C. [http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/GEP/GEParchives/GEP2007/381400GEP2007.pdf](http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/GEP/GEParchives/GEP2007/381400GEP2007.pdf)

World Bank. 2008. “Global Purchasing Power Parities and Real Expenditures: 2005 International Comparison Program.” Washington, D.C. [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ICPINT/Resources/icp-final.pdf](http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ICPINT/Resources/icp-final.pdf)

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World Bank, 2014a. “Purchasing Power Parities and Real Expenditures of World Economies: Summary of Results and Findings of the 2011 International Comparison Program.” Washington, D.C. [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ICPINT/Resources/270056-1183395201801/Summary-of-Results-and-Findings-of-the-2011-International-Comparison-Program.pdf](http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ICPINT/Resources/270056-1183395201801/Summary-of-Results-and-Findings-of-the-2011-International-Comparison-Program.pdf)

World Bank, 2014b. “Kenya Economic Update: Take-off Delayed?” Washington, D.C., June. [http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/06/19768790/take-off-delayed-kenyas-economy-facing-headwinds-2014-special-focus-delivering-primary-health-care-services-vol-2-2](http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/06/19768790/take-off-delayed-kenyas-economy-facing-headwinds-2014-special-focus-delivering-primary-health-care-services-vol-2-2)

World Bank. 2015. “A Measured Approach to Ending Poverty and Boosting Shared Prosperity: Concepts, Data, and the Twin Goals.” Policy Research Report, Washington, D.C. [http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/measuringpoverty/publication/a-measured-approach-to-ending-poverty-and-boosting-shared-prosperity](http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/measuringpoverty/publication/a-measured-approach-to-ending-poverty-and-boosting-shared-prosperity)

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**Next:** [Appendix: Methodology and Data Sources](https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2015/07/08/appendix-methodology-and-data-sources.md)